Introduction pdf - د. هشام

Fifth stage

Surgery-Ortho

Lec-3

هشام القطان

18/10/2015

Diagnosis in Orthopedics

Orthopedics

Is concerned with bone, joints, muscles, tendons and nerves, the skeletal system and all
that makes it move.

Describe

Write in details = introduction + pathological process + management

All should have equal time

Diagnosis

 You have to prove what it is

 Anatomically (what structure).

 Pathology (what is wrong).

 History.

 Examination.

 Special test.

 D.D. is only referred to incidental.

Differential diagnosis

 What else could be and how would you exclude the other possibilities. by

 Examination , tests

 We have to thing of the causes in the following

A. anatomical structure.

B. the pathological conditions either (congenital, acquired).

Give an account

 Comprehensive for each

 Incidence, pathology, etiology, symptoms and sign , treatment.

Discuss

 Select the most important controversial aspect of the subject(compare and contrast).

References

 Outline of orthopedics 14 edition 2010 adams’s.

 Apley's system of orthopedics & fracture.

 Essential orthopaedic and trauma 2009 (david j dandy).

Landmarks of surgery in the Nineteenth Century

 Fundamental advances depend upon the development of other branches of science

& industry.

 The first ,was introduction of anaesthesia (Crawford 1842) Ether.

 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895),has fundamental research on bacteria.

 Joseph Lister (1867) introduce antiseptic surgical technique.

 Roentgens’ in (1895) discovered X-ray

 To start orthopaedic surgery encompassed by general surgeon.

 Until after the first world war.

 In great Britain just before twentieth century each of

 (Hugh Owen Thomas &Sir Robert Jones) .

 both they set the sound foundation of orthopaedic surgery that now we enjoys.

Diagnosis

 History.

 Examination.

 Diagnostic imaging

 Blood test

 Synovial fluid analysis.

 Bone biopsy.

 Arthroscopy.

 Electrodiagnosis.

History

 Carefully and patiently compiled ,the history can be every bit as informative as

examination or laboratory test.

 Patient give history e.g.

 Injury.

 pain.

 stiffness.

 Swelling .

 Defomity.

 instability.

 Weakness .

 altered sensibilty and loss function.

Each symptom is need more detail

1.  when it begin.
2.  suddenly or gradually.
3.  spontaneously or after some specific events.
4.  how it progressed.
5.  what make it better or what it make it worse.

Symptoms

Pain

 Is the most common symptom in orthopaedics .

 Its precise location is important.

 Ask the patient to point it.

 Don’t forget pain might referred.

might be boring .

dramatic and bizarre .e.g.

 Throbbing abcess

 Aching chronic arthritis

 Burning neuralgia

 Stabbing ruptured tendon

Pain grading

 G1(mild) :

can be easily ignored.

 G2 (moderate):

pain cannt’be ignored, interfer with function and need rx from time to time.

 G3 (severe):

pain present most of the time ,demanding constant attention.

 G4

totally incapacitating

Referred pain

 Pain arising in or near the skin is usually localized accurately.

(it is due to inability of cerebral cortex to distinguish between sensory messages from

embyrologically related site). E. g. sciatica.

Autonomic pain

 Is much more vague ,often wide spread and accompanied by vasomotor and trophic

abnormalities.

Stiffness

 Generalized:

and regularrly in early morning as in rheumatoid arthritis.

 Localized:

for a particular joint.

 Regular at early morning:

as in R. A.

 Transient stiffness :

on or two joints after periods of inactivity is typical of osteoarthritis.

locking

 Is aspecial variety of stiffness .it is the suddenly inability to complete one particular

movement and it suggests a mechanical block

E.g. torn meniscus.

Swelling

 May be in soft tissue , the joint, or the bone .it occurred either

 Rapidly as haematoma.

 Slowly as soft tissue inflammation, joint effusion.

 Painful as acute inflammation, infection.

 Is it constant or continue to enlarge, or comes and goes.

Deformity

 Knock knee Bow Leg

Spinal curvature changes.

 Kyphosis.

 Scolosis.

 Lordosis

HALUX VALGUS PES PLANUS

weakness

 Muscle weakness may be associated with any joint dysfunction,

 It may also suggest a more specific neurological disorder as

e.g. poliomylites.

Instability

 The patient complains that the joint ((( jumps out ))).

 Due to muscle weakness or ligamentous deficiency.

Loose body.

Changes in sensibilty

 Tingling or numbness signifies interference with nerve function ,as pressure from a

neighbouring structure

e.g. disc prolapse.

 Local ischaemia as in C.T.S in nerve entrapment.

 Or peripheral neuropathy.

Loss function

 e.g. patient say ‘I can't sit for long time rather than I have backache’.

Past history

 It is very important e.g. history of twisted ankle many years ago may be the clue to

the onset of O.A.

Family history

 e.g. in musculoskeletal disorder.

Social background

 Details about work ,travel ,recreation,home circumstances, and the level of support

from family and friends.

Examination

 General.

 Local examination of the affected parts.

General

 Examination begins from the moment we set eyes on the patient.

 We should be observing his ,her appearance, posture ,gait .

 e.g. are they walking freely or do they use stick, any spinal curvature, short limb.

Gait consist of four parts.

Examples:

 High steppage gait (foot drop)

 Antalgic gait in pain.

 scissor gait.

 Shuffling gait

 Dipping gait.

 Waddling gait.

Examination of the affected parts

 Patient must be suitably undressed.

 If one limb is affected ,both must be exposed to compare.

 We examine the good limb then the bad limb.

 We followed the system of (look, feel, move).

Look

 Skin scar,color,creases.

 Shape swelling ,wasting.

 Position in nerve lesion and the joint disease a limb assumes characteristic attitude.

Deformity

 Deformity applied to either

 Person shortness stature

 Bone short bone.

 Joint joint may be held in an unusual position. (g.varum, lordosis,

kyphosis)

Causes of bone deformity

1. Congenital pseudarthrosis.

2. Bone softening, ricket.

3. Dysplasia, exostosis.

4. Plate injury.

5. Fracture malunion.

6. Pagets’ disease.

Causes of joint deformity

1. Skin contracture (burn).

2. Fascial contracure (dupuytrens’).

3. Muscle contracture (volkmanns’)

4. Muscle imbalance.

5. Joint instability (torn ligament).

6. Joint destruction (arthritis).

FEEL

Skin temp,sensation.

Soft tissue lump ,pulse.

Bone and joints fluid,synovium.

Tenderness precisely WHERE.

E.G. bony lumps. (size, site, margins, consistency, tenderness, multiplicity).

move

 Active ask the patient to move the joint.

 Passive by the examiner.

Normal movement

 The range of joint movement is recorded in degrees starting from zero.

 Flexion-extension : sagittal plane.

 Adduction- abduction :coronal plane.

 External –internal rotation: along the longitudinal axis.

 Pronation- supination: rotatory movement applied to foot and forearm.

Joint stiffness

 The term stiffness covers a variety of limitation of movement .

 Types:

1. All movements absent.

e.g. surgical fusion. (arthrodesis).

pathological fusion (T.B.).

2. ALL MOVEMENT LIMITED

e.g. in O.A. there is active inflammation of synovium.

3. One or two movements limited

When movement in at least one direction is full and painless the cause is usually
mechanical.

e.g. torn meniscus.

Neurological examination

 If the symptoms include weakness or in coordination or changes in the sensibility. or

if they point to any disorder of the neck or back.

 A complete neurological examination of the related part is mandatory.

Steps

 General appearance.

Claw hand, spastic of cerebral palsy,

trophic skin changes, ulcer , muscle wasting.

 Motor function:

tone

(( increase tone as in CVA))

not confused with rigidity ((lead pipe….))

power ,reflexes.

flaccidity ( as in polio.).

Testing muscle power
(medical research council)

 G0: no movement.

 G1: only a flicker of movement.

 G2: movement with gravity eliminated.

 G3: mov. against gravity.

 G4: mov. With resistance.

 G5: normal movement

 Sensory function

 Superficial sensation

Hyperasthesia (increased).

Dysaesthesia (unpleasant).

Hypoasthesia. (diminished).

Anaesthesia. (loss).

 Deep sensation

vibration test,

position sense,

sense of joint posture, sterognosis the ability to recognize shape and texture

by feel alone.

Reflexes

The tendon reflexes are monosynaptic segmental reflexes that is the reflex pathway takes a
short cut through the spinal cord at the segmental level.

 Tendon reflex.

 Patellar tendon reflex.

 Achilles tendon reflex.

 Superficial reflexes.

e.g. abdominal reflex.

 Deep reflexes.

planter reflex. ( babinski sign).

Diagnostic imaging

 Plain film radiography.

 Tomography.

 Computed tomography T.

 M .R. I .

 Diagnostic ultrasound.

 Radionuclide imaging.

Plain film radiography

 X-ray examination is almost 100 years old .

 Despite the remarkable technical advances of recent years, plain X-ray examination

remains the most useful method of diagnostic imaging.

 it provides information simultaneously on the .

Size.

Shape.

Tissue density.

Bone architecture.

 Which is usually suggest a diagnosis or at least a range of possible diagnosis.

 We should follow the principle of two in reading X –ray.

How to read an X-RAY

The process of reading x-ray films should be as methodical as clinical examination.

Systematic study is the only safeguard against missing other important signs.

The sequence as

start with identifying the part.

particular view. Then

 patient : name .

age.

sex.

 soft tissue study:

unless examined early ,these are liable to be forgotten.

looks for

muscular planes.

bulging around joints as in rheumatoid arthritis.

presence of calcification.

 Bones

looks for deformity, irregularity.

cortex for : Periosteal surface (periosteal reaction).

Endosteal surface.

Trabecular structure.

density : increase in density (sclerosis)

Decrease as in osteoporosis.

 The joint

The radiographic joint consists of the articulating bones and the space between them.

The space occupied with radiolucent cartilage.

Looks for narrowing of this space, flattening, erosion, sclerosis………..

X-ray using contrast media

The contrast media used in Orthopaedics are mostly,

Iodine-based liquids. (either oily iodides or water soluble ionic variety, e.g. metrizamide.

Sinography.

Arthrography.

myelography.

Tomography

Provides an image focused on a selected plane.

 Computed tomography (CT)

Produce cutting image through selected tissue planes but with much greater resolution.

Is capable of recording bone and soft tissue outline in cross section.

Disadvantage irradiation.

 M.R.I.

Relies upon radio frequency emission from atoms(proton) and molecules in tissues
exposed to a static magnetic field.

it is with better contrast resolution and more refined differentiation of tissues.

Diagnostic ultrasound

High frequency sound waves generated by transducer can penetrate several cm into the
soft tissue and reflected back and they are registered a electrical signals and displayed
as images on the screen.

The equipment is simple and portable.

It has harmless side effect.

It is helpful for screening of DDH.

Radionuclide imaging

 Photon emission by radionuclide taken up in specific tissue can be recorded to

produce an image which reflect activity in that tissue or organ.

 The ideal isotope.

99m technetium methylene diphosphonate

Gallium 67.

Blood tests

 Hb , differential count,ESR,c-reactive protein, gama globulin.

 Rheumatoid factor .

 Tissue typing (HLA-AG)detected in the white blood cell and are used to characterize

individual tissue types.

E.g. HLA-B27 on chromosome 6 as in seronegative.

 Blood chemistry.

Synovial fluid analysis

 Arthrocentesis: done after

 e.g.

injures .

suspected infection .

acute synovitis in adult.

chronic synovitis .

Bone biopsy

 Is often crucial means of making a diagnosis or distinguishing between local

conditions that closely resemble one another.

 Might open (surgery) or

closed (needle).

e.g. in bone tumor diagnosis to confirm benign or malignant.

Arthroscopy

 Is commonly performed for.

Diagnostic

Therapeutic reasons.

Almost any joint can be reached,most usefully employed in .

 Knee.

 shoulder.

 wrist.

Electro diagnosis

 Nerve and muscle function can be studied by various electrical methods.

 Motor nerve conduction.

 Sensory nerve conduction.

 Electromyography.

Nerve Conduction

 Conduction velocity of the nerve could be measured between 2 points.

e.g. velocity could be slowed as in nerve compression.(40-60 m\ s).

Treatments

METHODS OF NON-OPERATIVE TREATMENT

REST

Since the days of H. O. Thomas , who, more than a century ago, emphasized its value in diseases of the spine and

limbs, rest has been one of the mainstays of orthopaedic treatment. Complete rest
demands recumbency in bed

SUPPORT

. Examples in common use are spinal braces, cervical collars, wrist supports, walking
calipers, knee and ankle orthoses, and devices to control drop foot

PHYSIOTHERAPY

These may be active, passive or a combination of the two.

 Passive approaches involve a range of different techniques carried out on the patient

by the therapist.

 Active approaches require active involvement by the patient, either by exercising or

changing behavior

Passive intervention

 Manual therapy

 Soft tissue techniques

 Traction

 Electrotherapy

 Ultrasound

Alternative therapies

Acupuncture

massage

LOCAL INJECTIONS

Intraarticullar

Periarticular

Drugs

 Antibacterial and antibiotic

 Analgesics

 Sedatives

 Anti-inflammatory

 Hormone like drug

 Ant osteoporosis

 Specific drugs

 Cytotoxic drugs

MANIPULATION

 manipulation for correction of deformity

 manipulation to improve the range of movements at a stiff joint

 manipulation for relief of chronic pain in or about a joint, especially in the neck or

spine

RADIOTHERAPY

Operative treatment

  SYNOVECTOMY
  OSTEOTOMY
  ARTHROPLASTY
  Bone GRAFTING OPERATIONS

 TENDON GRAFTING OPERATIONS
 EQUALISATION OF LEG LENGTH

  leg lengthening
  leg shortening
  arrest of epiphysial growth.

 BONE FIXATION TECHNIQUES
 AMPUTATION

Photos  www.muhadharaty.com/lecture/2829